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Role of Leguminous Crops by Enhancing Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition

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Ambrin Rajput, Qurban Ali Panhwar and Hafeezullah Babar

Submitted: 05 January 2024 Reviewed: 26 April 2024 Published: 03 October 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1006827

Legumes Crops - Cultivation, Uses and Benefits IntechOpen
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Legumes Crops - Cultivation, Uses and Benefits [Working Title]

Dr. Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez and Dr. Julia Escudero-Feliu

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Abstract

Food legumes, such as lentils, chickpeas, mung bean, soybean, peas, and beans, have been cultivated worldwide. They are providing essential nutrients and contributing to overall food security. Legumes are rich in protein, ranging from 20 to 45%, and contain essential amino acids, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, making them a nutritionally balanced food source. Biological nitrogen is fixed (90%) by legumes for sustainable agriculture. Meanwhile, the production of various leguminous crops is reduced due to low yield potential, the blend of biotic and abiotic stresses, and environmental changes. The continued cultivation of food legumes in existing cropping patterns is supported by their substantial nutritive values, advantageous cost-benefit ratios, and positive influence on soil health. The strategic integration of legumes into agricultural practices to boost productivity has gained significant attention in response to global food demand. Moreover, legumes play a pivotal role in rejuvenating soil organic matter and addressing problems when included in crop rotations with non-leguminous crops. Research findings that underscore the procedure of N2 fixation stand out as the most environmentally friendly for meeting the substantial nitrogen requirements. This will increase food production in an eco-friendly manner by reducing reliance on agrochemicals and preserving nutrient balances in the soil.

Keywords

  • soil nutrient
  • improving fertility
  • macro and micro element
  • chickpea
  • lentil and mung bean

1. Introduction

In the year 2050, the worldwide population is anticipated to grasp 9.6 billion [1], presenting a myriad of challenges. Foremost among these challenges are the imperatives of achieving food security and addressing the imminent threat of climate change, with a specific focus on mitigating the net release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The consequences of climate change, coupled with the increasing vulnerability of crop systems to both biotic and abiotic stresses, carry significant ramifications for global food production. These challenges underscore the pressing need for the acceptance of sustainable and resilient agricultural practices to ensure a secure and stable food supply for the expanding global population in the approaching decades [2]. In the face of various challenges, mineral fertilizers, particularly those containing nitrogen, have played a crucial role in significantly boosting agricultural yields. However, the continuous processes of agriculture have directed to the depletion and exhaustion of soils, marked by issues such as erosion and the reduction of organic matter and essential nutrients due to the heightened nutrient requirements of cultivated plants. These practices have contributed to environmental problems, including water pollution and the release of trace gases into the atmosphere [3]. The decline in soil organic matter (SOM), a pivotal factor influencing physco-chemical and biological soil properties, has resulted in a considerable decline in overall soil quality. Rasmussen [4] stresses the importance of maintaining and improving soil quality to ensure the sustainability of agricultural activities for future generations. Consequently, there has been a growing interest in adopting environmentally friendly agricultural practices in recent years. This trend is evident in initiatives such as the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals and the plans outlined in the European Commission (EC) Green Deal [5, 6]. These approaches aim to address the environmental challenges associated with traditional agricultural practices and promote sustainable methods that not only safeguard soil quality but also ensure the long-term viability of agricultural systems. The restoration and enhancement of soil fertility are now widely acknowledged as essential elements in poverty alleviation efforts. Moreover, developing countries grapple with rising costs linked to the use of synthetic fertilizers despite the associated adverse and unpredictable environmental consequences, notably in terms of soil, water, and natural area contamination. In addressing these challenges, legumes emerge as pivotal contributors to the improvement of soil fertility by promoting the activity of microorganisms. These microorganisms play a fundamental role in shaping diverse soil properties, spanning biological, chemical, and physical aspects [7, 8, 9]. Certainly, the increasing emphasis on cultivating crops with minimal input and promoting sustainable agricultural systems, when considered from environmental, economic, and managerial standpoints, has led to the ongoing recognition and integration of legumes into agricultural methods [7, 10, 11]. This trend is credited to the beneficial attributes of legumes, such as their capability to fix nitrogen (N2) and recover soil fertility, while simultaneously disrupting the cycles of diseases and pests affecting crops [12]. Legumes are acknowledged as economical crops, providing advantages in environmental and socioeconomic aspects. Their potential inclusion in modern agricultural systems is particularly relevant, given the common characteristics of reduced crop diversity and heavy reliance on fertilizers and agrochemical inputs in such systems [7]. Legumes are characterized by plants that bear their seeds in pods. While there are over 16,000 known species of legumes, encompassing herbs, shrubs, and trees, nearby 200 are cultivated on a global scale. Over time, the depletion of soil organic reserves occurred due to cereal cropping and frequent fallowing practices. This led to an increased emphasis on green manuring, consequently elevating the importance of legumes in agriculture. However, post-World War II, there was a swift mechanization of farming, and traditional “legume-cereal” rotations fell out of favor. This shift was prompted by the widespread availability of relatively inexpensive nitrogen fertilizers, which were perceived as more efficient than legumes in enhancing grain yields. Despite this, food legumes remain a crucial component of the agriculture sector [13]. Legume Phylogeny Working Group [14, 15]. The latest available data indicates that food legumes are extensively cultivated on a global scale, covering approximately 93.18 million hectares. These crops contribute significantly to agriculture, generating an annual production of around 89.82 million tons. On average, food legumes exhibit a productivity of approximately 963.9 kilograms per hectare. These statistics underscore the widespread cultivation and substantial impact of food legumes to global agricultural output [16]. The leguminosae family is divided into three subfamilies: Papilionoideae, Caesalpinioideae, and Mimosoideae. Notably, the sub-family Papilionoideae is home to various edible legume crops. This includes well-known examples such as chickpeas, mung beans, lentils, peas, and several others. The diverse array of edible legumes within the Papilionoideae sub-family plays a substantial role in global nutrition and agricultural practices, contributing to the food security and dietary diversity of populations worldwide.

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2. Leguminous crops

Food legumes are pivotal for food security, contributing to humanoid health, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity enhancement. They serve as significant nutrition source, animal feed, and raw materials. With high nutritional value, legumes are essential plant-based protein sources in humanoid nourishments. Cultivating and consuming legumes not only fosters nutritional well-being but also promotes sustainable agriculture and ecological balance, making them indispensable for a resilient and secure food system. Leguminous crops represent a valuable protein source, notably rich in the essential amino acid lysine, constituting 20–45 percent of the total-protein content. In contrast, cereals are characterized by a high content of sulfur-containing amino acids. Combining legumes and cereals in a diet creates a complementary nutrient profile [17]. This synergistic combination significantly enhances protein uptake in the people. Legumes holds the potential to positively impact the production of dietary food, making nutrition more affordable for low-income groups and addressing issues of malnourishment, especially among lactating women and children, prevalent in many developing countries [17]. Malnourishment remains a pressing issue among lower-income groups in developing countries, primarily due to the inaccessibility of regular animal protein sources like eggs, meat, and milk. Recognizing this challenge, the FAO underscores the importance of incorporating legumes into human diets to address nutritional issues such as malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, obesity, and food-related diseases prevalent in many countries. Research efforts have extensively delved into the impact of legumes on improving rice yields. While the use of legumes, especially groundnut stover, as a nitrogen source to enhance rice yields is a focus, a notable challenge is that green manure legumes do not provide immediate economic returns to farmers. Obstacles such as the availability of legume seeds, the need for phosphorus fertilizer, and the integration of green manure legumes into rice production systems impede widespread adoption, particularly among small farmers with limited resources. In contrast, grain legumes like groundnuts, which yield edible grains, are more appealing to farmers. Studies, including the work by McDonagh [18] and Whitmore [19], suggest that groundnuts can seamlessly integrate into production systems, offering economic benefits. Furthermore, Toomsan [20] has explored the positive effect of legumes on soil fertility, concluding that they contribute to increased yields in subsequent crops such as rice, maize, and sugarcane.

2.1 Chickpea

The provided information highlights the significance of pulses, particularly chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), as essential leguminous food crops. Chickpeas are rich in nutrients and vitamins A, B, and C. Further, it contains dietary protein, carbohydrates, fat, and crude fiber (23, 64, 5, and 6%) [21, 22]. It contributes significantly to the global human food supply, accounting for 20% of the world’s food. This makes them a vital source of nutrition for a large population. Chickpeas are a winter-season crop and can thrive in various climatic conditions, including tropics, arid and semi-arid regions, temperate zones, and rainfed areas worldwide. Chickpeas have the ability to fix atmospheric N2, which contributes to improving soil fertility. This is beneficial for sustainable agricultural practices [23, 24]. Pulses are cultivated in Pakistan on approximately 931 thousand hectares. The national production is reported to be 359,000 tons. The grain productivity is specified as 0.386 ton per ha [25]. In the Sindh province, pulses, particularly chickpeas, are cultured about 22,000 hectares. The total production of the province is reported to be 19,000 tons. The grain yield in Sindh is given as 0.864 ton per hectare [26]. The mean chickpea yield in Pakistan is noted as 0.386 ton per hectare. A comparison is made with other countries, indicating that Pakistan’s yield is relatively lower than countries such as China (3.3 ton per hectare), Canada (1.90 ton per hectare), USA (1.70 ton per hectare), Lebanon (2.30 ton per hectare), and Egypt (1.70 ton per hectare) [27, 28]. Chickpea is identified as one of the eight “founder crops.” It was shown in the Fertile Around 12,000–10,000 years ago, as indicated by research conducted by Kislev and Bar-Yosef [29], chickpeas became prominent. The earliest indications of chickpeas being utilized as a food source trace back to the eighth millennium BC. Noteworthy archaeological evidence from sites like Tell el-Kerkh and Tell Abu Hureyra in Syria confirms the early consumption of chickpeas. Domesticated chickpeas have been identified in archaeological sites dating back to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, initially concentrated in the Fertile Crescent. However, during the late Neolithic era, chickpea cultivation extended beyond the Fertile Crescent and reached modern Greece [30]. Chickpea seeds have even been discovered in the Nile Valley, with indications of their presence dating as far back as the New Kingdom (1580–1100 BC). Additionally, the nutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) exhibit a synergistic effect when utilized in combination. The balanced and combined use of these nutrients is highlighted for better crop enhancement and improved productivity. The application of macronutrients (NPK) is suggested to assist plants in a more effective mode, leading to enhancements in plant growth parameters. The overall goal is to contribute to higher crop production. The uptake of these nutrients (NPK) by plants showed a positive response, particularly with the inclusion of potassium. The positive effects on chickpea cultivar growth are mentioned. The combined use of NPK is reported to have a significantly positive impact on chickpea cultivars. This suggests that a balanced application of these nutrients is beneficial for the overall performance of chickpea crops. The information is supported by previous studies conducted by Mondal [31] and Goud [32]. Specific examples include K rates (25 and 30 K2O kg ha−1) given with NP, which showed positive responses in various leguminous crops. Potassium is described as a third key element that is required in large amounts for various essential plant functions. Further, K serves as an enzymes, contributing to respiration, aiding in photosynthesis, regulating water within plants, and exhibiting synergistic effects with nitrogen and phosphorus [33]. Despite the importance of potassium, the information suggests that research on the use of K has not acknowledged sufficient attention in pulse crops in Sindh, Pakistan [34]. K fertilizer stands out as a financially burdensome contribution (agricultural) in Pakistan, with farmers reportedly refraining from its utilization in crop production due to its exorbitant cost [35]. Specifically in the case of chickpeas, the application of K is deemed negligible. Despite numerous studies highlighting its positive impact on crop’s output [36, 37], farmers tend to overlook the utilization of K in chickpea cultivation due to its high price. Various researchers have delved into the effects of different inorganic mineral rates and their collective applications on various crops including chickpea [38, 39, 40]. Notably, application of P2O5 and K in the chickpea variety (CM-98) have been reported to yield positive effects on various growth parameters, encompassing plant height, pods bearing branches per plant, pods per plant, seed pods per plant, seed per plant, grain, biomass, straw, productivity and 1000-grain weight [37, 41].

The addition of K showed a 7% rise in plant height and a 100% increase in the number of pods per plant compared to the control, marking a 13% improvement over treatments without potassium applications. In the presence of potassium, the plants exhibited a remarkable boost, producing 22% more grain weight (1000 grains), a 23% increase in biomass yield, and a 16% rise in straw yield compared to treatments without potassium. The grain yield experienced a substantial surge from 975 to 1896 kg ha−1 compared to without K application (Table 1).

TreatmentPlant height (cm)Pods plant−11000-grain weight (g)Biomass yield (kg ha−1)Straw yield
(kg ha−1)		Harvest indexGrain productivity
(kg ha−1)
Control62.2C21.7C375C4060C3085B24.0C975C
NP79.2B38.7B421B5005B3420A31.5B1584B
NPK85.0A43.8A455A5205A3309A36.5A1896A

Table 1.

Effect of K application on growth and productivity parameters of chickpea.

Rajput [42].

The introduction of potassium (K) resulted in a notable 10.4% rise in protein content compared to the treatment without potassium in the study (Table 2). There were variations in nutrient uptake among different fertilizer treatments, with the combined fertilizer application (NPK) demonstrating the highest nutrient uptake in the shoots of chickpea plants. Specifically, the NPK treatment exhibited higher concentrations of macronutrients, including N at 3.6 ppm, P at 2.56 ppm, and potassium (K) at 0.68 ppm, in comparison to treatments without K [43]. The utilization of NPK had a significant effect on the (N), (P), and (K) in the shoots, leading to peak values for reproductive parameters, including a seed index of 241.5 g and a biological, straw, and economic yield. Similar positive effects of NPK treatments on growth and yield were observed in other leguminous crops, such as gram, during the winter season (2007–2008). The outcomes indicated the gram cultivar Paidar 91, subjected to NPK treatments, recorded uppermost plant tallness (104.7 cm), seed numbers per pod (1.76), and 1000-grain mass (280.08) compared to other cultivars [37, 38]. It is worth noting that in certain regions of Pakistan, like Sindh, the soil is generally alkaline and calcareous, with low organic matter and imbalanced fertilization. This condition may lead to macro and micronutrient deficiencies. The study underscores the global concern about micronutrient deficiencies, affecting over 40% of the world’s population and causing various health problems, economic costs, and learning disabilities, particularly in children. Micronutrient deficiencies in plants have become a growing global concern due to intensive farming practices.

TreatmentProteinShoot NShoot PShoot KN uptakeP uptakeK uptake
Control8.75C1.2C0.2C0.3C44.3C8.7C19.8C
NP14.28B1.8B0.3A0.3C80.1B14.3B35.5B
NPK15.77A2.1A0.3A1.3A95.3A16.4A49.9A

Table 2.

Effect of K application on protein and NPK uptake (%) of chickpea.

Modified from Rajput [42].

2.2 Mung bean

Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is a versatile herbaceous belonging to the family Phaseoleae [44]. In Pakistan, it serves multiple purposes, being utilized as a cereal-based food grain, an ingredient in cuisine, a vegetable, green manure, livestock feed, and even for medicinal purposes [45]. The mung bean is recognized as an energetically ironic source of easily edible protein and lysine [46]. The nutritional composition of mung bean seeds is notable, comprising proteins (24.70), fat (0.65), fiber (0.95), and ash (3.75) % [47]. Moreover, mung bean seeds boast a rich array of vitamins and minerals. The vitamin content encompasses vitamin A (74.370), vitamin C (4.80), and folate 625.0 mg. Regarding minerals, mung bean seeds are a source of calcium (132), phosphorus (367), and zinc (2.7) mg/100 g [47]. This nutrient-dense profile underscores the significance of incorporating mung bean into diets for potential health benefits [48]. Mung bean holds the second position after chickpea among pulse family [49, 50]. In Pakistan, the cultivation area for mung bean was reported at 0.163 million hectares, yielding 118 thousand tons with an mean value of 723 kg ha−1 in a specific year [46]. In a subsequent reporting period, the area, production, and yield of mung bean in Pakistan increased to 186 thousand hectares, 133 thousand tonnes, and 711 kg ha−1, respectively, showing a 12.6% increase in production over the previous year [51]. Despite the rise in production, the average yield of mung bean in Pakistan remains significantly below the potential yield level of 2650 kg/ha compared to other countries. Notably, approximately 98% of cultivators in Sindh, Pakistan abstain from using phosphorus mineral for mung bean crops, because due to the common thought among growers, as a leguminous crops, it does not need mineral nutrition. In Pakistan, about 90% of soils suffer from P deficiency. Even when phosphorus is applied, its efficacy is limited, ranging from 15 to 20% at best, particularly in alkaline and calcareous soils [52]. These factors contribute to the suboptimal yield of mung bean in the country.

The issue of P inadequacy in Pakistani soils is widespread due to P sorption with CaCO3 and Ca ions in soils with higher pH [53]. Addressing production gaps necessitates careful consideration of the balance and efficient utilization of phosphorus minerals alongside nitrogen and potassium applications [33]. Despite the prevailing trend among farmers to overlook fertilizer application due to high costs, the application of phosphorus (P) has demonstrated positive outcomes in enhancing crop production. Local studies have illustrated the combined effects of P with N and K mineral application on the productivity of mung bean and other pulse and oil seed crops [40, 42]. Research conducted by Fageria [54] emphasized the increase in dry bean grain productivity with the application of P mineral nutrients. Likewise, Higgs [55] observed a global grain production increase of 30–50% since the 1950s with the application of fertilizers, including P.

Numerous studies have highlighted the crucial role of the combined application of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) in enhancing plant height, nodulation, agronomic progression, productivity, and value of mung bean, which have been extensively studied by researchers [56, 57]. Moreover, the combination of P with N has consistently been shown to produce the highest productivity, fruit-bearing branches per plant, and protein content [58, 59, 60]. Additionally, various methods of applying different P levels, such as broadcast, banding, and fertigation, have been investigated in mung bean crops has been studied which has shown that fertigation methods with increasing P levels provide the highest yield, uptake, and agronomic efficiency [61]. This emphasizes the importance of optimizing P application methods for improved mung bean production in Pakistan. Similarly, the combined application of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) with rhizobacteria demonstrated the highest yield in mung bean crops [62]. Furthermore, Malik [63] concluded that the highest productivity was achieved with a phosphorus (P) rate of 50 kg ha−1. Sadeghipour and Tajali [59] concluded that the maximum productivity (224.2 kg ha−1) was obtained with 120 kg P2O5 ha−1 along with nitrogen (N) at 90 kg ha−1. In contrast, Kumar [64] showed that the maximum yield (10.78 kg ha−1) and straw productivity (26.63 kg ha−1) were obtained with a P2O5 application of 45 kg ha−1. Moreover, studies by Meena and Varma [65] and Kaysha [66] consistently indicated that higher yields were observed with increased rates of phosphorus application. The information on the importance of the nitrogen-phosphorus (N:P) ratio, water use efficiency, and the necessity of simultaneous application of nitrogen and phosphorus for maximum crop production is insightful. Additionally, the role of nitrogen in enhancing grain quality and crop production, as highlighted by various studies, adds depth to the understanding of nutrient management practices. Nitrogen and phosphorus stand out as the most deficient nutrients in the soil. Hence, their concurrent application is essential to achieve optimal crop production. Nitrogen boosts the quality of grain with higher crop production. Before using fertilizer, it is critical to identify the soil’s nutritional values including nutrient uptake in plants. Additionally, the role of nitrogen in improving grain quality and crop production, as highlighted by various studies, adds depth to the understanding of nutrient management practices. Moreover, the emphasis on the importance of assessing the soil’s nutritional condition and plant nutrient uptake before using fertilizers reinforces the need for a targeted and informed approach to nutrient management in agriculture. This information contributes to a well-rounded understanding of the factors influencing mung bean productivity and the significance of nutrient optimization strategies.

The plant height exhibited a notable increase, rising from 67.05 cm under control conditions to 75.0 cm with the application of 150 kg of P2O5 per hectare. Various levels of phosphorus (P) application demonstrated an increasing trend compared to the control plot [42]. The addition of 50 kg ha−1 of P2O5 showed in the maximum number of pods per plant (88), representing a 49% increase compared to the control plot (Table 3). This trend continued to escalate with higher P levels. The maximum count of fruit-bearing branches (32) was observed at the P level of 50 kg P2O5 ha−1, marking a 20% increase over the control plot where the minimum count (17) was documented. The lowest productivity (859 kg ha−1) was noted in the plot wherever P was not used, and only N and K were used. The results revealed that the maximum yield was calculated with the application of 75 kg ha−1 of P2O5 in combination with N and K, resulting in a maximum grain productivity of 2089 kg ha−1 at the rate of 50 kg P2O5 ha−1. The biomass and straw productivity increased from 1260 and 401 kg ha−1 in the control plot to 2986 and 508 kg ha−1, respectively, with the application of 30–75-30 kg ha−1 of NP2O5K2O. Hence, biomass and straw productivity enhanced by >100 and 26%at 75 P2O5 kg ha−1 over control plot [42].

Treatment
NP2O5K2O
Kg ha−1		Plant height (cm)No. of plants treatment−1No. of fruit-bearing branchesNo. of pods plants−11000 grain
Weight (g)		Grain yield
(Kg ha−1)		Biomass yield
(kg ha−1)		Straw yield
(kg ha−1)
Control
(25–0-25)		67.47A74.0A17.1A59B52.9D993.3E6000F368.3C
1/2 P
(25–25-25)		69.0A70.0A18.3A74AB52.4CD2025.3D7367E717.1AB
3/4P
(25–38-25)		70.5A78.0A18.5A80A55.7C2478.7C7667D871.6AB
Full P
(25–50–25)		70.2A79.3A22.9A88A57.5B2922.7B8467C1022.9 BC
1.5P
(25–75-25)		69.5A74.3A22.4A85AB55.4A2911.3A8133B1017.3 BC
2P
(25–100–25)		69.9A63.3A22.0A85AB51.7A3036.3A9733B1057.8ABC
2.5P
(25–125–25)		75.4A76.7A22.7A82AB58.3A3190.0A9700A1110.1A
3P
(25–150–25)		66.1A90.3A22.3A83AB59.6A3190.0A9800A1110.9A

Table 3.

Phosphorus application on yield contributing parameters of mung bean.

Modified from Rajput and Memon [42].

2.3 Lentil

Lentil, derived from the Latin word “lens,” accurately describes the character of the seed. The name Lens culinaris to lentil was given by the German botanist Medikus in 1787, as mentioned by Cubero [67]. Lentils hold the position of the second significant cool-season food legume, following chickpeas. They have been cultivated for over 8000 years, signifying one of the early domesticated species, as indicated by Dhuppar [68] and Cokkizgin and Munqez [69]. Lentils are thriving in semi-arid regions of the world, notably in the Indian subcontinent and the dry areas of the Middle East, as highlighted by Malik [70]. Asia dominates lentil cultivation, representing 80 percent of the global area and contributing to 75 percent of world production [71]. Lentils, known locally as Masoor, is a nutritionally rich food source, offering 59% carbohydrates, 25% proteins, 0.7% fat, 2.1% minerals, 0.7% fiber, vitamins, and minerals such as K, P, Ca, Fe, and Zn. They are also a good source of dietary fiber and provide a high energy value, as noted by DeAlmeida Costa [72]. Lentil seeds contain significant amounts of oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, as reported by Roy [73]. Additionally, the nutritional profile makes lentils a substantial and well-rounded food source [73]. Globally, lentils are grown as a rainfed pulse in about 52 countries, holding approximately 3.85 million hectares with a production of 3.59 million tonnes, as reported by Erskine et al. in 2011. Major contributors to lentil cultivation include Canada, India, Turkey, Australia, the United States, Nepal, China, and Ethiopia, with diverse climates and agricultural practices. Lentils are particularly significant in regions with marginal lands, where resource-poor farmers cultivate them. They thrive in areas with low fertility and water-holding capacity, making them adaptable to subtropical foothill soils. Their suitability for cultivation in Ladakh, known for its frost and severe winters, underscores their hardy nature. They have become an integral part of farming practices in the Ladakh region, fitting well into the local climate conditions. Lentils show potential as an inter-crop in young orchards, demonstrating their adaptability to different farming systems. Their ability to thrive with minimal irrigation further enhances their value for local farmers. Considering the specific conditions of Ladakh, the integrated use of chemical fertilizers with organic compost is recommended. This approach aims to enhance lentil production and maintain soil health, particularly in cold arid conditions. Investigating the optimal proportion levels of these fertilizers becomes crucial for achieving the highest productivity in Ladakh.

2.4 Soybean

Soybean (Glycine max L.) stands out as a widely cultivated legume crop on a global scale. In 2019, its production reached a substantial 334 m metric tons, covering an extensive harvested area of 121 m ha [74]. The U.S. Midwest, known for its agricultural productivity, significantly contributes to over 34% of the world’s soybean output. Belonging to the Fabaceae family, soybeans play a crucial role in supplying approximately 50% of the world’s edible oil [75]. Their applications extend beyond human consumption to include uses in animal feed and various non-food sectors, highlighting their versatility. Despite its prominence, a notable point of concern is that commercial fertilizers are given (less than 40% of soybean acreage). The limited use of commercial fertilizers emphasizes the potential impact of improved nutrient management practices on soybean cultivation. Efficient fertilizer application and soil management practices are crucial for addressing challenges related to soil health and nutrient deficiencies. This practice contributes to challenges such as shortage of micronutrients, poor soil fertility, and a decline in soybean productivity over time [76]. Addressing these challenges through enhanced fertilizer application and sustainable soil management practices is crucial for ensuring the long-term viability of soybean cultivation worldwide. This not only contributes to improving soybean yields but also aligns with broader goals of agricultural sustainability. In conclusion, soybeans play an active part in global agriculture, and nutrient management tasks are essential for sustaining and enhancing their productivity. As the demand for soybeans continues to rise, adopting effective and sustainable agricultural practices becomes paramount for the future of soybean cultivation.

Legume-based cropping systems play a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility and health, with soybeans being significant contributors to these benefits. Soyabean provides availability of soil organic matter (SOM). SOM is rich in N and P nutrients, which are important nutrients for plant growth [77]. Soybeans actively contribute to the enhancement of SOM by providing biomass, organic carbon, and nitrogen. These contributions foster the proliferation of nodule-forming bacteria, specifically Rhizobia. The presence of Rhizobia is crucial for N fixation, a process that converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants [78, 79]. The benefits of legume-based cropping systems, including soybeans, are diverse and include, increased SOM levels, which improve overall soil fertility, soil structure, water infiltration and root growth, helping to maintain a stable pH level, diversification of microscopic soil flora and fauna, contributing to a more robust and balanced soil ecosystem and disruption of pest and disease cycles, which can occur due to the interactions within the soil environment [80, 81]. Soil organic matter, which is boosted by legume-based systems like those involving soybeans, performs a pivotal function in micronutrient accessibility and plant uptake. Micronutrients are essential for various biochemical processes in plants, and their availability is crucial for plant health and growth. In essence, the incorporation of legume-based cropping systems, particularly those involving soybeans, has multifaceted benefits for soil health. These systems contribute to the enrichment of soil organic matter, improve overall soil structure, and deliver nutrient cycling and availability. The resulting enhancement of soil fertility and health has positive implications for sustainable and resilient agricultural practices. To enhance soybean production, factors beyond fertilization, such as the adoption of high-yielding varieties and consideration of optimal growing conditions, play a crucial role. Soybeans thrive in specific climatic conditions, and optimal cultivation involves: ideally, a temperature range of 25°-27°C is favorable for soybean cultivation; average air humidity of around 65% supports optimal growth; soybeans require at least 10–12 hours of sunlight per day for effective photosynthesis. The ideal monthly rainfall falls between 100 and 200 mm, ensuring an adequate water supply for the plants. Soybeans prefer loose, moist, textured soil with a slightly acidic to neutral pH range of 6–6.8. While they can tolerate slightly more acidic conditions (down to pH 5.5), growth may be significantly hampered due to aluminum poisoning. In such cases, lime application is recommended to mitigate the adverse effects of low pH on soybean growth [76]. The historical variability in soybean yield response to nutrient applications is influenced by factors such as genetic diversity, management practices, and environmental circumstances, including soil properties, pH, organic matter, moisture, temperature, and aeration. To optimize soybean production, it is crucial to identify and understand the genetic and environmental factors influencing micronutrient uptake and crop removal. This knowledge serves as the foundation for effective nutrient management strategies. Research on micronutrients like zinc (Zn) and Iron (Fe) has demonstrated positive effects on yield and yield components in various crops [82]. Micronutrient applications, including foliar spray of Fe and Mo (Molybdenum) on soybeans, have been shown to reduce damages caused by water deficit conditions, resulting in improved yields compared to control treatments without these micronutrients [83, 84]. Studies by Ross [85] emphasize the importance of boron (B) application. A notable increase in soybean yield, ranging from 4 to 130%, was observed when B was applied to plants showing visual deficiency symptoms and grown under low B levels. The findings underscore the importance of considering micronutrients in soybean nutrient management strategies. Tailoring micronutrient applications to address deficiencies identified in the local environment can significantly contribute to enhancing soybean yields and overall crop health.

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3. Soil fertility and plant nutrition

3.1 Soil fertility

Sustainable crop production requires the application of N and P fertilization in a definite ratio. Ensuring a balanced N:P ratio is crucial not only for current agricultural practices but also for investment in soil fertility and an environmentally friendly approach for the benefit of future generations. Continuous cropping of various varieties in regions like Pakistan has led to the depletion of necessary elements from the soil, resulting in poor soil fertility. Without proper nutrient replenishment, continuous cultivation can adversely affect soil productivity over time. Maintaining a balanced N:P ratio in fertilization practices is essential for improving agricultural production and contributing to sustainable agriculture. This balanced approach helps ensure the long-term health and fertility of the soil, providing a foundation for consistent and resilient crop yields. The significance of this balanced nutrient management approach becomes even more critical globally, especially as the availability of agricultural land is decreasing due to urbanization and industrialization. The pressure on limited land resources emphasizes the need for sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural practices [86]. In summary, the imperative for balanced nutrient management intensifies in the face of global challenges related to shrinking agricultural land. By prioritizing sustainability and eco-friendliness, agricultural practices can contribute to both food security and the responsible stewardship of limited land resources [87]. Despite numerous attempts, the task of increasing crop production in developing countries, especially for smallholder farmers, remains a complex and unresolved issue. Various practices intended to boost production often prove unsustainable, carrying elevated economic, ecological, and environmental costs. Smallholder farmers, who constitute a significant portion of agricultural activities in developing nations, face particular challenges due to the economic, ecological, and environmental implications of certain agricultural practices. These challenges can act as barriers, hindering their ability to adopt and sustain these approaches. With the global population projected to reach 10 billion in the next 50 years and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) expected to host around 2.12 billion people by 2065, there is an urgent need to address these challenges. In response to these challenges, there is a pressing need for innovative and sustainable agricultural practices. These practices should not only address the economic and ecological aspects but also be socially equitable. The aim is to come across the future food supply of a growing global population without compromising the well-being of farmers or the health of ecosystems. New agricultural approaches, including innovative fertilization techniques, alternative soil amendments, and harnessing beneficial bacteria and fungi, offer compelling and sustainable solutions for enhancing soil health, optimizing fertility, and promoting robust crop growth. These methods are key to ensuring adequate and high-quality agricultural yields, thereby advancing the cause of sustainable farming practices.

3.2 Plant nutrition

For their growth and production, plants necessitate 17 essential nutrients, with hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon obtained from water and air. Macronutrients, comprising N, P, K, S, Ca, and Mg, are essential in higher amounts, whereas micronutrients like iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), and nickel (Ni) are required in smaller amounts. Leguminous crops like soybeans typically experience fewer micronutrient deficiencies compared to macronutrient deficiencies. However, micronutrients are vital for critical cell functions in plants [88, 89, 90]. Despite their lower quantity requirement, micronutrient deficiencies can result in reduced plant development, productivity, and quality, impacting the health and efficiency of both animals and humans dependent on these crops [91, 92, 93]. Micronutrient deficiency in arable soil poses a pervasive worldwide challenge [10, 11]. In recent years, there has been a heightened focus on micronutrients, spurred by elevated nutrient removal rates resulting from the cultivation of newly developed high-yielding cultivars [94]. The soil’s micronutrient availability profoundly influences plant uptake [95]. Positive yield responses, observed across diverse crops such as soybeans, underscore the significance of incorporating micronutrients alongside macronutrients [96]. Crop production contends with an array of environmental anxieties, encompassing disease and pest infestations, low soil fertility, and insufficient water supply [97, 98]. Addressing micronutrient deficiencies emerges as a crucial aspect of optimizing crop yields, particularly considering evolving agricultural practices and the development of high-yielding crop varieties. The intricate relationship between soil health, nutrient availability, and environmental stresses underscores the necessity for a holistic approach to crop management and nutrient supplementation. In the past few years, the scientific community has increasingly emphasized the importance of soil quality and soil health, recognizing their crucial roles in producing food, conserving water, nutrient cycling, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity conservation [99]. The thought of soil fertility and quality gained prominence in the 1980s as a holistic approach that goes beyond just managing fertility to tackle various soil degradation issues. The FAO has been a key player in promoting awareness and understanding in this regard [100]. defines soil health as the “capacity of soil to function as a living system, within the ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and promote plant and animal health.” The shift toward soil health management signifies a holistic consideration of the crucial nutrients and interconnected soil physical, chemical, and biological practices needed to produce crops and provide low-cost overall farm care (Figure 1). This approach acknowledges the dynamic and multifaceted nature of soils, emphasizing their critical role in maintaining ecological balance and supporting sustainable agricultural practices. Legume-based cropping systems enhance soil fertility by increasing the accessibility of soil organic matter (SOM) with enriched N and P nutrients [103]. Legumes, such as soybeans, are key contributors to this improvement, supplying biomass, organic carbon, and nitrogen [104]. They also foster the growth of nodule-forming bacteria, particularly Rhizobia, further enhancing soil health [78]. The advantages of legume cultivation extend to various aspects, including increased SOM, improved soil porosity and structure, nutrient recycling, pH buffering, and disruption of pest and disease cycles [79]. Soil organic matter (SOM) shows a pivotal function in facilitating the availability and uptake of micronutrients by floras [81]. The incidence of chelating organic compounds in soils plays a significant role in enhancing the accessibility and solubility of micronutrients. Chelation of metal elements, including zinc and iron, with SOM is crucial for facilitating their transport to the plant’s root system [105]. Legume-based cropping systems emerge as valuable contributors to soil health, fostering a dynamic interplay of soil properties, nutrient dynamics, and overall ecosystem well-being in agriculture.

Figure 1.

Soil health management processes. Source: modified from Moebius-Clune [101] and Hills et al. [102].

3.3 Role of legumes in soil health improvement

3.3.1 Biological nitrogen fixation

Legume crops are ironic in protein, a feature directly attributed to their ability to fulfill a significant portion of their nitrogen requirements with the support of symbiotic Rhizobia microorganisms. When legumes are inoculated with the appropriate strain of Rhizobia bacteria, they can independently supply up to 90% of their nitrogen requirements. After germination, Rhizobia bacteria enter the root hairs and infiltrate the root, leading to multiplication and the formation of distinct pale pink nodules on the roots. Within these nodules, the microorganisms bind nitrogen gas from the soil air. They utilize carbohydrates produced by the above-ground plant during photosynthesis as a nutrient source. The symbiotic relationship allows legumes to efficiently use atmospheric nitrogen, converting it into a beneficial form for their growth. This process contributes to the high-protein content in legume tissues [106]. Bacteria in symbiosis with legumes produce ammonia (NH3), utilizing hydrogen from the plant’s carbohydrates and atmospheric nitrogen. The produced ammonia serves as a vital nitrogen source for the plant’s growth, contributing to the production of high-protein seeds or forage crops. This mutualistic interaction allows both the bacteria and the legume to thrive, showcasing the efficiency of nitrogen fixation in leguminous plants. While legumes can fix atmospheric nitrogen, they are also capable of absorbing significant amounts of soil nitrogen if available. Soil microorganisms play a crucial role in decomposing nitrogen-rich organic material, releasing nitrogen into the soil upon their death. On average, approximately two-third of N2 fixed by a legume crop turns out to be accessible in the following growing season when it is incorporated into a crop rotation [107].

3.3.2 Carbon sequestration

The process involves capturing atmospheric CO2 and incorporating it into the soil through plant activity, providing benefits such as enhanced biodiversity, improved nutritional security, increased renewability, water quality improvement, and strengthened nutrient recycling [108]. Agricultural production processes are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, amplifying global warming. Significant factors encompass the manufacturing and utilization of fertilizers, machinery usage, agronomic practices, and diverse soil processes [109]. Improved soil organic carbon (SOC): Leguminous crops, with their ability to shed leaves and robust biomass production underground, play a significant role in sequestering soil organic carbon. This positive impact is further heightened when legume farming practices are integrated into mixed farming and crop rotation. The potential for carbon storage is maximized when agronomic practices of legume cultivation are combined with other techniques such as no-tillage and mixed cropping [110]. Influence on Soil Biology: Legumes actively shape soil biology by fostering the formation and upkeep of soil aggregates. Consequently, this contributes to enhanced soil carbon storage by safeguarding it from decomposition. The overall influence of leguminous crops on soil organic carbon and other structural aspects relies on the intricate interactions between soil components and crop residues [111].

3.3.3 Reduction in greenhouse gas emission

The potential of forage legumes, particularly those rich in condensed tannins, to reduce methane emissions in ruminants is an interesting area of research. While the initial findings are promising, ongoing studies are crucial to fully understand the mechanisms involved, optimize the utilization of tannin-containing forages, and assess their long-term environmental impact and sustainability. Implementing such strategies not only has the potential to benefit livestock management by reducing methane emissions but also aligns with wider efforts to highlight climate change and endorse sustainable agricultural practices. It’s important to consider the multifaceted aspects of these interventions, including their feasibility, economic implications, and compatibility with overall farm management practices. Continued research, collaboration between scientists, farmers, and policymakers, and the integration of innovative approaches into agricultural systems will contribute to the development of effective and sustainable strategies for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from livestock [112]. The relationship between the use of mineral nitrogen fertilizer and nitrous oxide emissions is highlighted, indicating a direct correlation. This underscores the importance of managing nitrogen fertilizer application to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions. The positive impact of legumes, such as alfalfa and soybeans, on reducing nitrous oxide emissions is noted. This aspect is crucial for national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, suggesting that incorporating legumes can be an environmentally beneficial practice. The comparison with perennial grass and the lower nitrous oxide emissions observed in legume systems highlight the potential environmental advantages of growing legumes. This comparison provides insights into the role of specific crops in influencing greenhouse gas emissions. The recognition of legumes as soil-amendment crops with positive effects on soil health is important. The observation that nitrous oxide emissions were not strictly correlated with soil mineral nitrogen pools underlines the complexity of the interactions and factors involved in emissions, extending beyond nitrogen quantity. The concluding emphasis on considering legumes differently in national inventories stresses the need to recognize the unique contributions of legumes to lowering nitrous oxide emissions and improving overall soil health. Incorporating legumes into farming systems is presented as a valuable and beneficial practice with potential environmental advantages [109]. Legumes enhance agricultural productivity, suggesting improved yields when incorporated into cropping systems. Legumes play a role in soil conservation, preventing erosion and maintaining soil structure for long-term fertility. Legumes positively impact soil biology, enhancing microbial activity and diversity essential for nutrient cycling and overall soil ecosystem functioning. Legumes contribute to the accumulation of soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks, which are crucial for soil fertility and supporting plant growth. Legumes positively influence soil chemical and physical properties, potentially improving nutrient availability, soil structure, and water retention. Legumes fix atmospheric N2 by symbiotic relationships, improving N2 availability in the soil. Legumes help mitigate nitrous oxide emissions and reduce nitrate leaching, contributing to environmental sustainability and water quality. Legumes reduce the dependency on chemical fertilizers, offering economic benefits and promoting sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural practices.

3.3.4 Nutrient availability in soil

Increased nitrogen addition to the soil may result in elevated nitrogen losses through leaching, potentially limiting the strengthening of the soil nitrogen pool. Legume farming is suggested as a strategy to reinforce the soil nitrogen pool. The effectiveness of this depends on legumes fixing more nitrogen than is removed during harvesting. Phosphorus is highlighted as essential for plant growth, and its deficiency can significantly reduce photosynthesis rates, impacting leaf growth and overall photosynthetic capability. Phosphorus deficiency is expected to have severe implications for the symbiotic associations of plant roots with rhizobacteria, affecting the development and functioning of nodules involved in biological N2 fixation, an energy-intensive process [113]. The passage highlights the strong connection between aerial metabolic and developmental events in plants and the symbiotic associations of plant roots with rhizobacteria. Phosphorus deficiency is indicated to negatively impact the development and proper functioning of nodules, crucial components in the symbiotic relationship between plants and rhizobacteria. The passage emphasizes that the process of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is described as highly energy-intensive [114]. Nitrogen is contrasted with phosphorus, emphasizing the nonrenewable nature and depletion of inorganic phosphorus reserves over time. Developing legume cultivars with efficient N2-fixing capability, particularly in P-deficient conditions, is highlighted as crucial for enhancing soil health and overall sustainability. Plants have evolved adaptive morphological and physiological approaches to enhance phosphorus acquisition, especially when facing phosphorus constraints in symbiotic relationships. Adaptive strategies operate at multiple levels, including maintaining higher phosphorus levels in nodules, increasing root surface area, enhancing root exudate excretion, and regulating the expression of transporters and aquaporin to improve phosphorus uptake. Compensatory mechanisms are mentioned, such as an increase in fixed nitrogen per unit of nodule to compensate for a decrease in nodule number. Improved phosphorus acquisition actively contributes to the efficiency of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in nodules. Efficient BNF in nodules significantly contributes to maintaining the nitrogen balance in the soil. Approximately all legume cultivars adopted by farmers incorporate various methodologies to enhance phosphorus acquisition. The adoption of these approaches by legume cultivars is presented as a superior way to retain soil health, highlighting the importance of sustainable agriculture. The overall goal is to improve both nitrogen and phosphorus availability in the soil. Legumes play a vital role in effectively managing dependence on inorganic fertilizers. The conclusion emphasizes that legumes contribute to improving overall soil fertility.

3.3.5 Role of legumes in improving soil properties

3.3.5.1 Improving soil physical properties

The root systems of leguminous plants help to fix the soil particles composed, plummeting the risk of erosion. This is particularly important in areas prone to soil erosion due to wind or water. Legumes contribute to increased soil organic matter that boosts the soil’s water retention capacity. The organic matter acts like a sponge, holding water for plant use during dry periods and reducing the risk of water runoff. Legumes, through their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, improve soil fertility. This promotes a healthier and more diverse soil ecosystem, fostering the growth of various microorganisms and supporting plant growth. Leguminous plants release organic compounds into the soil through root exudates. These compounds act as binding agents, enhancing soil structure by improving aggregation and stability. This, in turn, facilitates better root penetration and nutrient availability. The incorporation of organic matter from leguminous plants can reduce soil bulk density, improving porosity. This is important for aeration and root development. Increased porosity allows water and air to move more freely through the soil [115]. The organic matter added by leguminous plants contributes to soil aggregation, enhancing combination stability. Moreover, the improvement in soil texture occurs as a result of the organic materials breaking down over time, influencing the composition of soil particles. Legumes positively impact various water-related processes, such as reducing runoff and erosion. The enhanced soil structure and organic matter content improve water infiltration rates and water-holding capacity, making water more available to plants. The vegetation cover provided by leguminous plants can act as a natural insulator, buffering temperature fluctuations in the soil. This helps maintain more stable soil temperatures, creating a promising atmosphere for plant development [116]. Leguminous cover crops contribute significantly to soil health by producing large amounts of biomass. This biomass serves as a substrate for soil organic processes, facilitating the development and accumulation of soil organic matter. Increased organic matter content enhances soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability [117]. Moreover, leguminous cover crops play a dual role in protecting the soil. They help prevent the loss of plant nutrients by covering the soil surface and reducing leaching and nutrient runoff. Additionally, the dense cover provided by these crops acts as a protective layer against erosion, safeguarding the topsoil from being washed away. Green manure plants, particularly leguminous ones, are intentionally grown to improve soil physical properties. When these plants are incorporated into the soil as green manure, they contribute organic matter, enriching the soil and enhancing its fertility. This practice is a proactive approach to soil management and improvement. Some leguminous plants have the ability to physically modify the soil profile. This could involve changes in soil structure, texture, or composition influenced by the specific characteristics of the legume species. Leguminous cover crops influence soil structure by promoting aggregation. The root systems and residues of these crops contribute to the formation of soil aggregates, which enhance soil porosity, aeration, and water movement. This, in turn, improves the overall physical condition of the soil. Leguminous cover crops play a role in maintaining an appropriate carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio in the soil. This balance is crucial for the efficient decomposition of organic matter and the overall health of the soil microbial community. The presence of leguminous cover crop residues in the soil facilitates increased water infiltration. Direct effects of crop residues on soil structure and aggregation, as well as their role in preventing surface crusting, which can impede water movement [118, 119, 120, 121].

3.3.5.2 Improving soil chemical properties

Soil chemical properties play an important part in sustainable agriculture by providing essential nutrients to crops and managing harmful substances. A balanced and fertile soil is fundamental for the long-term health and productivity of agroecosystems. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is an indicator of the soil’s capacity to retain and exchange cations, which are positively charged ions influencing nutrient availability to plants. Soil pH affects nutrient availability and microbial activity. Different crops thrive in different pH ranges, making pH management crucial for successful agriculture. Monitoring levels of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium is critical for understanding soil fertility and making informed nutrient management decisions. Organic carbon is a key component of SOM, influencing soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability. Leguminous crops and soil chemical properties: leguminous crops have a significant impact on soil chemical properties due to their special capability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) through symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. This nitrogen fixation process contributes to increased nutrient availability in the soil, particularly nitrogen. The nitrogen-fixing ability of leguminous crops allows for a rapid improvement in soil chemical properties. By converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, legumes contribute to enhanced nutrient levels in the soil. Legume-based rotations induce changes in the pH of the rhizosphere—the soil zone influenced by the roots. This alteration in pH can impact nutrient availability and microbial activity, influencing overall soil health. Legumes release organic compounds through root exudation, and the alteration or release of organic acids on the root surfaces can enhance the availability of P in the soil. This is crucial for the nutrient uptake by plants. The capability of legumes to fix nitrogen, influence pH, and enhance nutrient availability makes them valuable components in strategies aimed at improving soil fertility and ensuring the long-term productivity of agricultural systems [122]. Legume-added organic matter can both increase and decrease soil pH. Organic acids and CO2 from decomposition decrease pH, while the reduction of H+ into H2O and CO2 raises pH [123]. The pH changes significantly affect microorganisms, which are crucial for nutrient cycling. Leguminous green manure enriches soil with organic matter. It increases nitrogen and releases phosphorus, renews organic carbon, and enhances soil chemistry. Incorporating legume residues boosts soil organic carbon, aiding in carbon sequestration. Leguminous cover plants as green manure enhance the availability of N, P, K, and trace elements to subsequent plants. This is facilitated by the pH decrease resulting from CO2 during decomposition [124]. When pulses and oil seed crops are utilized as green manure mixed with soil, their remains enhance the availability of N, K, and minor nutrients, which enhance plant growth. This increased availability is attributed to the dropping of soil pH caused by the CO2 formed during the decomposition method. Overall, the use of leguminous green manure appears to have multifaceted effects on soil properties, nutrient cycling, and microbial activity, with potential benefits for both agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.

3.3.5.3 Enhancing soil biological properties

Soil microorganisms play a significant part in bridging the connection between plant yield and nutrient accessibility. They actively participate, both directly and indirectly, in nutrient cycling by converting both inorganic and organic forms of nutrients [125]. Legumes are essential components for increasing soil microbial biomass. They actively contribute to key strategies such as nutrient cycling and breakdown of soil organic matter, leading to improved crop productivity and soil sustainability. Microorganisms in the rhizospheric zone, physically interacting with leguminous plants, can positively enhance crop productivity by promoting plant development and improvement. The profusion and variety of microbes show a direct correlation with plant production. The occurrence and copiousness of microbial life are unswervingly linked to soil element availability. Microorganisms play a role in facilitating the transfer of nutrients from the soil to plants, thereby improving soil fertility and the overall health of the plant-soil system [126]. Intercropping with legumes contributes to the formation of diverse root types. This practice results in a change in the complete root distribution and architecture within the soil. Intercropping with legumes modifies the process of exudation in the rhizosphere. Rhizospheric exudates play a vital part in influencing soil microbial communities and their interactions with plants. The changes in root development, distribution, and exudation strongly influence the microbial communal in the soil. This, in turn, affects the interactions between microbes and plants. Intercropping with legumes is stated to promote beneficial interactions between the microbial community and plants. The practice of intercropping cereals with legumes is noted to promote complementarity and facilitation in agroecosystems. This suggests that the combined growth of cereals and legumes has positive effects on the overall agricultural system [126].

A long-term study was indicated to assess the rotation of cereals and leguminous plants and cover crops in a specific area. The study revealed that although there were slight improvements in physical properties, significant soil improvements required a cropping pattern spanning five years. Future research should focus on better understanding the impacts related to species selection, seeding rates, termination methods, and other factors. This research will be essential in guiding farmers to choose the most suitable cropping options to maximize benefits [127]. Furthermore, subsequent studies have revealed that incorporating leguminous crop residues into the soil leads to increased levels of phospholipid-derived fatty acids, total bacterial abundance, fungal root colonization, and spore density compared to residues placed on the surface or removed. This effect is likely attributed to the enhanced contact between residues and soil microbes, which improves soil nutrient status, particularly by increasing the availability of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) substrates [128].

For the improving soil directly incorporating fresh red clover into the soil was found to be more effective in enhancing soil microbial biomass and enzyme activity compared to using biogas slurry from fermented red clover or composted red clover [129]. Moreover, biological interventions involve the use of leguminous cover crops and other plant materials to enhance the availability of nutrients for the benefit of the environment and ultimately improve crop yields. The success of a successful biological intervention management program is determined by the objectives and purpose of a chosen leguminous crop or shrub. Site specifications, timing, and cropping history are all factors to consider when selecting the most appropriate leguminous crop species to introduce into a system. Specific reasons to incorporate leguminous crops into a crop management regime include slowing erosion, improving soil health, enhancing water infiltration, suppressing weeds, controlling pests and diseases, and increasing biodiversity [130]. The loss of soil organic matter (SOM) in agroecosystems, in particular, which is a key factor in affecting the physical, chemical, and biological soil properties, has determined a massive decrease in soil quality [131].

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4. Conclusion and future strategies

Sustainable agriculture aims to meet the requirements of the existent population without compromising the productive potential for future generations. The role and importance of legumes in sustainable agriculture can be enhanced through emerging research opportunities. Careful selection and introduction of legume species and cultivars across diverse cropping systems is crucial. Striking a balance between achieving economic returns through yield and considering environmental and agronomic benefits is essential when contemplating legume cultivation. Assessing the N2 fixation ability of grain legumes in relation to soil, climate, plant characteristics, and management conditions is vital for optimal enhancements. In future cropping systems, legumes with the ability to recover unavailable forms of soil phosphorus could prove to be valuable assets. Therefore, it is imperative to explore and integrate such legumes to improve overall agricultural sustainability. Proper management of leguminous crops is essential to raise fertility levels and sustain crop production. Appropriate tillage practices for leguminous crops can contribute to soil improvement. Clear identification and selection of practices suitable for the agroecological zone are crucial. In particular, growing land pressure has led to shorter fallow periods. Enhanced fallow systems necessitate the integration of rapidly growing leguminous crops that can generate substantial biomass or efficiently fix nitrogen in brief periods. Encouraging seed production of important leguminous crops ensures their availability and affordability.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Submitted: 05 January 2024 Reviewed: 26 April 2024 Published: 03 October 2024

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