A Heuristic Determination of Innovative Pedagogical Practices for an Online or Blended Context

3.1 Innovative pedagogical practice (IPP) in ICTs

Practically, IPPs can be modelled, shared and replicated elsewhere, but they need to be instituted properly and ensure that changes are meaningful. As a ‘process,’ IPP involves the implementation of the curriculum innovatively. IPP is an emerging practice that continues to evolve and is open-ended [15].

In [16], a study of one hundred and seventy-four cases from 28 different countries found that the use of ICTs in educational institutions is intricately linked with innovative practices. Yuen et al. [17] argue that effectively, in the absence of ICTs, no IPPs would have happened. Research done by [18] confirmed that the lack of facilities, infrastructure, technical tools and the internet access is the major drawback for conducting online sessions innovatively. It is, therefore, important to acknowledge that the delivery of quality online education requires a multi-factorial and tailored approach to ensure innovative pedagogical practice [19]. Findings from research done by [20] stress the importance of authentic, reflective and collaborative online learning experiences that should be incorporated into the design of online courses. To ensure innovative online practice, [21] suggests employing design strategies that effectively adapt the course content and pedagogy to a digital context.

3.2 Self-regulation and motivation of students

Self-regulated learning entails the ways how students prepare for take steps in and monitor and evaluate their own learning for self-feedback [22] while also motivating themselves [23, 24]. ICT is considered a crucial lever in school change and educational reform, which can improve student learning opportunities [25, 26]. In order to participate effectively in the information society, lecturers and students alike should have new knowledge, work and skills approaches [27]. Yet one of the key factors that inhibit lecturers from incorporating ICT in class is a knowledge deficiency. Lecturers have two important roles (i) a supportive role, which involves supporting students to make sense of new ideas and cultural tools and (ii) a diagnostic role whereby they continue to examine and monitor the interpretations of actions with a view to put in place better activities and practices in future. There is ample evidence, which shows the significance of encouraging students’ control of the entire learning process [28]. The need to study self-directed learning is in line with research that shows a growing appreciation of the necessity to encourage student control of the learning process [29]. Yet for self-regulated learning to materialise, need to be able to choose and personalise from the available the content and tools and also receive the pertinent scaffolding to aid their learning [28].

Stubbé et al. [30] are of opinion that self-regulated students can execute learning activities that engender knowledge production, understanding and high-order learning. Case studies showed that the customisation of activities where students made their own commentaries, for example, helped to motivate students. The choice of topics, which are personally meaningful motivated students; in other cases, students could personalise the information using a variety of digital media. Allowing students to convey their ideas at their own pace provided them with the necessary flexibility. Although students produce meaningful and authentic content, they have the freedom to choose various forms from a raft of tools, modalities and media, which could include pictures, text, video and voice.

5.1 General trends emanating from the online survey

Research-based courses mostly utilise project briefs. The course character requires investigative practices and action-based activities.

In terms of the structure of online sessions and the place of reflective practices, comments and feedback on tasks and activities are rarely used as introduction to online sessions. Journaling occurs mostly as a reflective activity but is not often used as a pedagogy. Furthermore, journaling is utilised as a tool for students to express understanding of concepts, but not to reflect on challenges or to determine what they still would require guidance to gain a deeper grasp/understanding. By including guiding questions in the journaling would assist the lecturer to monitor not only what the students understand but also to identify gaps in understanding. This means that a greater emphasis on the how and application is necessary.

Focus group discussions are rarely used. Groupwork is mostly incorporated in Years 3 and 4 and seldom in Year 1.

Peer engagement is in instances utilised as assessment practice, but very seldom as pedagogy. Peer participation and motivation are seldom and by exception included in the practice. Peer motivation and assessment seem not in practice at all.

Authentic simulated activities are rarely used as part of instructional design; this should be incorporated in preparation for TP as mini teaching sessions, role play, simulated critical responses, debate and dialogue. It could be that narration of understanding is viewed as part of discussion. Inquiry-based investigations are rarely used in courses other than research methodology.

The following appear mostly in pedagogical practice:

• Discussion

• Lecture and explanation

• Narration of concepts

• Topic-based discussions

The following appear rarely in pedagogical practice:

• Action-oriented activities

• Critical analysis

• Inquiry-based investigations

• Observation

• Problem-based strategies

In instances it seems that ‘’prior knowledge’ is increasingly introduced from the first year up to the fourth year. It is not clear whether the concept is understood to include knowledge in a course or module previously engaged as an abstract knowledge element or concrete everyday knowledge.

Observation and analysis rarely appear as a pedagogy but are in some departments incrementally introduced in assessment tasks.

Feedback is rarely used as a pedagogy. Although feedback is utilised in some instances to motivate and encourage students, feedback as remedial practice or used to monitor and identify knowledge gaps is only utilised by some of the lecturers.

5.2 Findings from departmental responses

6.1 Collaboration and collective sense-making

The study pointed to a need for greater collaboration and cross-pollination of good practice across departments and to move away from the silo approach. A study done by [31] on the experiences and perceptions of students on online learning affirm the effect of collaboration and sharing expertise. The students in the study expressed appreciation for the affordance of an online and open-source learning platform to also engage with seasoned lecturers and field experts that are not attached to their institutions. The ‘lessons learnt’ approach to find evidence of effective experience or what [32] refers to as ‘collective sense-making and reflection’ would be worthwhile exercises to use in building a knowledge and experience hub. The experts could include representation from professional bodies, clinical expertise or industry field specialists.

Part of the establishment of learning ecosystems and collaboration would be through the establishment of study groups, ‘buddy’ learning and peer learning and assessment, as well as cross-study-year engagement. Ecosystemic changes ought to be visible in improved lecturer-student relationships, as well as the alignment of module content with intended application and assessment tasks.

The recommendations imply a broader impact on

• module reviews to ensure alignment with the rationale of the qualification

• content and skill selection and the sequencing thereof

• intended learning progression determination

• application of suggested pedagogies

• student collaboration in peer-observation, tuition, assessment and project-based engagement

6.2 Discovery-based and experiential instructional designs

True to a constructivist epistemology, learning is an active process in which students should learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves. Another proponent of the notion that students should be active participants who construct their own learning [33], and experience centred in the learning process [34]. Adopting an experiential learning theory shifts the focus from student-centredness to learning-centredness based on the propositions that learning is a holistic and continuous process of creating knowledge grounded in experience [33]. Furthermore, that learning results from synergistic transactions between the person and the environment. This means that the students’ ideas, beliefs and practices will be reflected in to the learning environment because individuals make meaning through the interactions with one another and with the environment they live in [35]. Through practical activity, a student constructs meaning at an intrapersonal level.

6.3 Engaging students through a flipped classroom approach

A number of responses from respondents pointed to the low degree of student engagement prior to and during the online sessions. When moving to an alternative mode of delivery, students need to gain intrinsic motivation for learning and the ability to be self-directed and develop a sense of autonomy. According to the responses students lack in instances self-motivation, self-directed learning and to take responsibility for and initiative in their own learning. The question is then how could student engagement be enhanced? The quest for answers brought the essence of Feuerstein’s theory on the effect of mediated learning experiences [36]. He claims that ‘mediated learning experience is an intergenerational relationship determined by the strong need for ensuring continuity beyond the biological existence of the individual to also include cultural and spiritual continuity’ [36]. This emphasises the importance of acknowledging the teaching and learning context and different learning styles in instructional design practices and in particular in blended and online teaching and learning environments. It also means considering students’ past experiences and cultural backgrounds in order to connect disparate aspects of experience in a meaningful way. Students can be further guided towards the following that can lead to deepening learning: the sense of competence, regulation and control of behaviour, the sense of belonging, willingness to accept challenges, goal setting and goal planning and finding optimistic alternatives.

Aligned with the discussion on mediation, it is worthwhile mentioning that mediation is centre to the application of a flipped classroom in increasing student motivation, confidence and engagement [22, 37]. As we know, a flipped classroom is an instructional strategy that steers away from lecturing as the only mode of delivery by aiming to increase student engagement and learning. The characteristics of the flipped classroom method are active participative learning, student involvement, mixed course design and podcasting. Pre-recorded lessons could be used to inform further discussion or as preparatory work towards class activities, assignments or further discussions.

The main goal of the flipped classroom approach is to reverse traditional models by having the students to complete readings and do preparatory work prior to in class or online engagement. The ‘flipped classroom’ method could also result in students deploying the skills and bringing about more effective engagement with the subject matter and fellow students, necessary for any work environment. However, care and attention will need to be given to supporting students, guiding them through the course material and providing meaningful forms of assessment that maximise the benefits of co-creating their learning [37]. The focus in the latter would be on problem-solving, reporting on analysis/research/ investigation, reporting on peer engagement, providing feedback to peers, contributing to a discussion, etc. The use of case studies and simulations is appropriate for preparation prior to whole group engagement.

Students need to be involved from the planning stage of a flipped classroom model and commit to the implementation of the model. For the lecturer, some additional thinking and preparation in guiding students would be necessary. It requires a systematic and evidence-based approach in instructional design and the choice of teaching and learning strategies. Philip et al. [38] reiterates that providing a clear definition of learning objectives from the start and ensuring that all activities are aligned to achieve the desired objectives will result in deep learning.

In many instances, lecturers following a flipped classroom model would post short video lectures online for students to view at home prior to the next class session. Questions and additional reading material would flow from the online lecture to guide students in their preparation for the whole group engagement. These online sessions (in-class sessions) would then be devoted to expanding on and mastering the material through discussions, reporting on findings, collaborative learning exercises and projects.

Findings from research on the effect of flipped classrooms point to the positive influences of this approach on the level of student satisfaction, as well as the extent of engagement in in-session activities [39]. Specific aspects of the learning experience can be identified for improvement. The research furthermore revealed that students have more control over their own learning because they can review expectancies in their own time without the time pressure in an online session. The grasping of concepts becomes easier as well. There are reports on an increase in student performance and attitude towards learning. Lecturers reported on a more positive behaviour and engagement.

The application of the flipped classroom pedagogy will compel students to take responsibility for learning and manage preparatory tasks. The pedagogy prompts students to actively participate in learning and increases peer learning, collaboration and a sense of own meaning-making. The latter encourages students to become more self-directed in their learning. In respect of peer learning, the introduction of a ‘buddy’ system in class will ensure that students look after their ‘buddies’ if they are absent from class engagement. In this way, students will not fall behind on class activities, even if they are not in class/ online due to ill health or other reasons.

Alternative forms of student participation, for instance, tasks to be completed in pairs, tasks to be completed in small groups and tasks requiring individual preparation for whole-classroom discussion could be used for flipped classroom activities. Preparation, pre-reading and research tasks done before class would enhance classroom discussions and engagement and allow for more reflection on the depth of understanding of concepts and learning material.

6.4 Project- and research-based pedagogy

Project-based learning (PBL) is an innovative approach to learning that teaches a multitude of strategies critical for success in the twenty-first century. Students drive their own learning through inquiry, as well as work collaboratively to research and create projects that reflect their knowledge. From gleaning new, viable technology skills, to becoming proficient communicators and advanced problem solvers, students benefit from this approach to instruction [40].

Project-based learning provides the opportunity to embrace various ways of learning through the inclusion of, for instance, theories of play, biomimicry and sociotechnical approaches. The effect of project-based teaching on learning could lead to students being more motivated to engage in learning activities, even if the activities are challenging and require deeper thinking. This will also lead to a more positive attitude towards learning and their willingness to engage in more challenging tasks might improve when engaged in a project [41, 42, 43, 44].

Low achievers’ academic performance improves through project-based learning [44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. This is also true for the academic performance of students with a low socio-economic status and minority students [49, 50].

Students’ level of collaboration and the willingness to narrate their own understanding will improve through participation in project-based teaching, learning and assessment [31, 40, 47, 51, 52].

Research conducted in 2010 also points to the following skills that are enhanced through incorporation of project-based teaching and learning:

1. Students learn to analyse, evaluate and make assumptions and become able to synthesise understanding [40, 53, 54, 55].

2. Students learn to apply new knowledge and skills in unfamiliar situations and environments [48, 50, 56].

3. The experiential nature of project-based learning improves long-term knowledge retention, thus improving the ability of students to recall learnt information during summative assessments [47, 48].

4. Critical and innovative thinking skills, collaboration and the ability to solve problems are developed [57].

5. Technology skills are developed [58].

6. Language skill development takes place through authentic communication activities and engagement in interpreting expectancies of a brief or project requirements [42, 59].

As indicated in item i above, project-based learning increases students’ level of motivation, which includes internal and external motivation. Internal motivation would also include how students deal with learning and goal setting, as well as the attitude towards assessment [22]. External motivation would include peer learning, lecturer/ facilitator encouragement and the teaching environment to assist in students taking responsibility for their own learning.

Guiding students through the application of project-based learning deepens self-directedness, the responsibility for learning and the cognition of what they still need to work on to gain a good understanding of the content dealt with. Students’ interaction with peers through project-based learning develops their belief in what they can do (self-efficacy). The social interaction and teamwork involve persuasion and encouragement to participate and might just foster courage in the shy or insecure student to engage in group discussions and to speak in front of the bigger group [60]. Most students will find project-based learning enjoyable, stimulating and encouraging.

The major features of project-based learning are aligned with socio-constructivist thinking, namely, that a student can construct knowledge in a social environment and use language as a narrative tool to express understanding. As indicated in item iii above, collaboration is one of the key features of project-based learning. In a project-based tuition setting, the students are divided into groups and given different roles and responsibilities, while the lecturer remains the facilitator and provides guidance throughout the learning process [61]. The lecturer needs to ensure that dynamics are managed in such a way that the environment is conducive for all group members to participate. Group dynamics must be managed well to ensure that students will participate fully during the completion of projects. In this regard, group members need to agree on processes, responsibilities and actions to ensure academic performance of the whole group [62].

Findings from literature reveal that when a lecturer facilitates group work effectively, and there is cooperation and discussion among groups, students will be able to deal with the subjects thoroughly and contribute to each other’s learning [47, 52, 63]. Through collaboration, students become friends with the openness to give each other constructive feedback and help each other reach personal goals [40]. In this way, the students become a community of practice who help each other when they are faced with academic challenges. This also provides the opportunity to introduce peer learning, peer assessment and small study groups. A concern could be raised over the difficulty of evaluating each member of a group; criterion-referenced modelling, as well as taxonomies and rubrics, are of great value in this regard. Of importance is that lecturers need to conceptualise projects effectively to allow students to gain substantially from the benefits of project-based learning.

Project-based learning also assists in developing interdisciplinary knowledge and solving interdisciplinary problems [64, 65, 66]. This could be a useful tool to assist in steering away from a silo approach and embrace interdepartmental collaboration and contributions towards the enhancement of teaching and learning in the Faculty of Education.

Since learning takes place in a social environment in project-based learning, it is important for the teaching to incorporate content and skills development in the instructional design. The aim is to ensure lasting skills that are transferable and can be applied in different settings. Project-based learning is a tool that encourages collaborative thinking and sense-making, critical thinking and the creation of new ideas to approach and solve problems. There are many examples of how social skills are developed through the application of project-based learning [60, 63]. One could, therefore, argue that these skills advance the holistic development of students, thus positioning them to be well-rounded individuals. What is important to note is that if these skills are learnt consistently over time, students will master and develop long-term learning strategies [40]. This implies that project-based learning can facilitate real-life learning experiences and create an environment that hosts an authoritative learning community focused on academic achievement, self-development and communal interests. Modelling authentic problems for students provides them an opportunity to apply knowledge and skills by making connections between real-life experiences and the teaching-learning environment [50, 56].

In accordance with the real-life context, the project-based learning approach permits students to respond to questions through a prolonged investigative process [48]. This reiterates the close alignment between project-based teaching, learning and assessment, research and academic literacy. A project expects the student to follow a brief, search for applicable and appropriate information, mapping a response path, test possibilities and seek solutions to hypotheses and questions posed. The adoption of project-based teaching, learning and assessment would incorporate the development of research skills, interpretation, critical analysis and the writing up of findings. The embedment of research-based activities and assignments and the prominent development of academic literacy from the first year of study will deepen the modelling of research on practice and strengthen academic literacies. The progressive strengthening of academic reading and writing through scaffolding reading, critical questioning, the design of analysis tools and mapping an investigative path would impact positively on research methodology and the ability to develop a strong research proposal in later years.

6.5 Problem-solving as pedagogy

Seeking alternative pedagogical practices makes it necessary to find different ways to deal with a concept, how deeper engagement could be established and how to use problem-solving as a pedagogy. The role of reasoning and how to generate opinions and evidence-based arguments is crucial.

The connection between reasoning and various cognitive abilities such as intelligence, intellect, attention and working memory is reiterated by research done by [2]. Related issues in considering problem-solving as a pedagogy are the relationship between beliefs and reasoning, the strength of explanations and evidence in generating and evaluating arguments [3]. This means that the kind of problem that needs solving will require fast, automatic and unconscious reasoning processes, but complex problems might require conscious and effortful engagement and interpretation.

There is also the issue of the impact of the group in modifying individual cognitive biases in addressing a problem that needs solving. From the respondents’ responses to the survey questions, all the above became evident. Respondents made it clear that they had to find new ways to engage, to motivate, to communicate and to find support.

6.6 Self-directedness and thinking dispositions

From the respondents’ responses, it seems that self-regulation needs to be instilled in many of the students to also be willing to adapt to new learning environments. Self-management, responsibility of own learning and being accountable for managing own time effectively, the ability to develop sound working relationships and the ability to work effectively as part of a group are abilities highlighted in the [67] level descriptors. The accountability includes supervisory responsibility for others and for the responsible use of resources, where appropriate.

The management of own learning also entails the ability to evaluate his or her performance or the performance of others in an effort to promote the learning of others too. This also means that students need to identify, evaluate and address his or her learning needs in a self-directed manner and to facilitate collaborative learning processes [67].

Examples of the effect and worth of self-regulation, self-management and self-directed learning include research by [68] and the reporting of [69] on a case where information technology (IT) fundamental course students replaced textbooks with pocket PCs; they used the PCs to search for IT words in an active, student-centred approach. As peer/reciprocal form of teaching, the students selected topics of interest to them and worked in pairs to produce video podcasts on a topic in the module and would share their assignment with the whole class. Sample video podcasts were provided as examples and the lecturer provided scaffolding in technical parts of the assignments.

Another report is where students studying towards a Master of Library and Information Studies worked collaboratively using a wiki to produce a web-based information guide. Working autonomously, groups of students used instructor guidelines to produce three deliverables, a resource guide, a presentation to the rest of the class and an online journal in which students documented and reflected on their experiences. In another instance, students worked on lecturer-directed (top down) and student-directed (bottom up) activities, which allowed for high levels of empowerment and freedom. Some of the activities were not directly graded, rather students had to show evidence of accomplishing the activities. Students had a particular time period in which they had to contribute 500 words fortnightly. These examples just show that online and blended learning requires student participation to keep them motivated, engaged and focused.

Moving to an alternative mode of delivery also requires the development of new dispositions of thinking about teaching and learning [22]. This would include a new way of interpreting programme content and in what sequence the offering needs to be planned. Even something so simplistic as allowing students to convey their ideas provided them with the necessary flexibility and motivation to participate. Staff’s deeper thinking in terms of various forms of engagement needs to be addressed, which could be anything from media such as pictures, text, video and voice to a work-integrated learning strategies, teaching and clinical practices.